Due to vector accumulation at the vitreoretinal junction, only localized transgene expression can be obtained in RGC, and deep retinal layers have never been successfully transduced in healthy retina [3?]. By contrast, the subretinal route of delivery can be used to target the RPE and/or the photoreceptors with lentiviral or AAV vectors [6?0]. AAV is a particularly promising vector forgene therapy for retinal diseases, due to its weak immunogenicity, its ability to infect all retinal cell types and its potential for the long-term expression of transgenes [3,11]. Several clinical trials have 
recently shown that the subretinal injection of 
RPE65encoding AAV yields significant visual improvement in patients with Leber’s congenital amaurosis (LCA), a severe form of retinal degeneration affecting children [12?4]. The subretinal injection of gene vectors is generally considered to be safe [6,15], but this surgical procedure induces detachment of the retina at the site of injection, leading to localized trauma and possible retinal thinning and cell destruction [16?8]. If prolonged, retinal detachment can induce the apoptotic cell death of photoreceptor cells, leading to a loss of vision [19]. In the first clinical trials of gene therapy for LCA [12?4], the subretinal injection of RPE65-expressing AAV caused temporary retinal detachment, which resolved spontaneously in most cases. However, the development of a macular hole in one case highlights the risks of such surgery [20,21]. Subretinal gene vector delivery is also of questionable value in gene therapy for retinal disorders increasing the likelihood of retinal detachment, such as X-linkedSystemic scAAV9 Gene Transfer to the Retinajuvenile retinoschisis [5], or Nafarelin.html”>MedChemExpress Nafarelin diseases affecting the subretinal space, such as the wet-form of age-related macular degeneration, in which the development of subretinal choroidal neovascular membranes or subretinal hemorrhage is responsible for most of the vision loss [22]. Finally, subretinal injection usually limits transgene delivery to the area surrounding the injection site, and this is not ideal for the treatment of diseases requiring the transduction of cells throughout the retina [5]. The translation of retinal gene transfer into clinical practice might therefore require alternative delivery routes to subretinal injection. The transfer of genes to cells throughout the retinas of both eyes via a single systemic injection of viral gene vectors would constitute an attractive 15755315 non invasive strategy for the treatment of retinal diseases. However, systemic gene transfer to the retina is hampered by the tight junctions of the blood-eye barrier, which prevents the passage of viral vectors from the bloodstream into the subretinal space, particularly in adults [23]. We and others have shown that the self-complementary AAV9 vector (scAAV9) has a remarkable ability to mediate widespread transgene expression in the brain and spinal cord following its intravenous injection into both neonatal and adult animals [24?6], suggesting that this vector can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The therapeutic potential of this systemic approach was recently demonstrated in a mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a devastating neuromuscular disorder caused by mutations or deletions of the “Survival of Motor Neuron” (SMN) gene [27?0]. In these pioneering studies, mice intravenously injected with SMN-encoding scAAV9 during the perinatal period displayed an impressive rescu.Due to vector accumulation at the vitreoretinal junction, only localized transgene expression can be obtained in RGC, and deep retinal layers have never been successfully transduced in healthy retina [3?]. By contrast, the subretinal route of delivery can be used to target the RPE and/or the photoreceptors with lentiviral or AAV vectors [6?0]. AAV is a particularly promising vector forgene therapy for retinal diseases, due to its weak immunogenicity, its ability to infect all retinal cell types and its potential for the long-term expression of transgenes [3,11]. Several clinical trials have recently shown that the subretinal injection of RPE65encoding AAV yields significant visual improvement in patients with Leber’s congenital amaurosis (LCA), a severe form of retinal degeneration affecting children [12?4]. The subretinal injection of gene vectors is generally considered to be safe [6,15], but this surgical procedure induces detachment of the retina at the site of injection, leading to localized trauma and possible retinal thinning and cell destruction [16?8]. If prolonged, retinal detachment can induce the apoptotic cell death of photoreceptor cells, leading to a loss of vision [19]. In the first clinical trials of gene therapy for LCA [12?4], the subretinal injection of RPE65-expressing AAV caused temporary retinal detachment, which resolved spontaneously in most cases. However, the development of a macular hole in one case highlights the risks of such surgery [20,21]. Subretinal gene vector delivery is also of questionable value in gene therapy for retinal disorders increasing the likelihood of retinal detachment, such as X-linkedSystemic scAAV9 Gene Transfer to the Retinajuvenile retinoschisis [5], or diseases affecting the subretinal space, such as the wet-form of age-related macular degeneration, in which the development of subretinal choroidal neovascular membranes or subretinal hemorrhage is responsible for most of the vision loss [22]. Finally, subretinal injection usually limits transgene delivery to the area surrounding the injection site, and this is not ideal for the treatment of diseases requiring the transduction of cells throughout the retina [5]. The translation of retinal gene transfer into clinical practice might therefore require alternative delivery routes to subretinal injection. The transfer of genes to cells throughout the retinas of both eyes via a single systemic injection of viral gene vectors would constitute an attractive 15755315 non invasive strategy for the treatment of retinal diseases. However, systemic gene transfer to the retina is hampered by the tight junctions of the blood-eye barrier, which prevents the passage of viral vectors from the bloodstream into the subretinal space, particularly in adults [23]. We and others have shown that the self-complementary AAV9 vector (scAAV9) has a remarkable ability to mediate widespread transgene expression in the brain and spinal cord following its intravenous injection into both neonatal and adult animals [24?6], suggesting that this vector can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The therapeutic potential of this systemic approach was recently demonstrated in a mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a devastating neuromuscular disorder caused by mutations or deletions of the “Survival of Motor Neuron” (SMN) gene [27?0]. In these pioneering studies, mice intravenously injected with SMN-encoding scAAV9 during the perinatal period displayed an impressive rescu.