Also containing H1 N1 – and B-like virus. A similarly selective response was seen in a cohort of elderly persons consuming a dietary supplement containing oligofructose/inulin and triacylglycerol, with antibodies mounted for H1 N1 – over H3 N2 – and B-like viruses [93]. It is currently unknown what properties of the prebiotics impart this selectivity, though if this were determined, prebiotic formulations could be manipulated to stimulate unique immune responses against immunized viruses. Prebiotics may also have general immune benefits when used alongside immunization. A unique oligosaccharide mixture (9:1 short-chain GOS to long-chain FOS + pAOS) fed to mice prior to vaccination improved their type IV hypersensitivity response, a form of cell-mediated immunity [94]. In turn, this immune response evoked enhanced skin induration and CD4+ T cell counts against toxins other than the vaccinated pathogen [95]. If this is observable in humans, an improvement in circulating antibodies and cell-mediated immunity by a food product would be beneficial especially to individuals at high risk for infection such as children and the elderly. Prebiotics and probiotics have been extremely successful at suppressing indigestion and diarrhea due to pathogens. These conditions in infants are common and can be quite serious, particularly in the developing world [96]. For this reason, researchers have measured the effects of oligofructose on diarrhea-associated fever and required medical attention in infants [97,98]. They found that children with a similar occurrence of diarrhea experienced fewer episodes of fever, trips to the doctor, and antibiotic use while consuming 1 g/day oligofructose-supplemented cereal. Even though their ability to combat loose stool was unchanged, oligofructose may improve young children’s ability to fight off underlying infection to reduce associated morbidities. On the other end of the immune spectrum, excessive response to a foreign stimulus can lead to allergic diseases such as asthma, atopic dermatitis, and eczema. A meta-analysis of human clinical trials for allergic diseases in children concluded that prebiotics are protective against the onset of eczema, with a potential trend for Tyrphostin AG 490MedChemExpress AG-490 combatting allergic diseases [99]. For example, infants fed formula supplemented with a GOS/FOS/pAOS mixture for 6?0 months had a 44 lower prevalence of atopic dermatitis and a low risk for developing the condition [100], as did another formula containing a GOS/FOS mixture [101]. Contrary to this, a more recent study used RG7800MedChemExpress RG7800 partially hydrolyzed formula supplemented with the same GOS/FOS prebiotic and found no effect on eczema prevalence [102]. However, partially hydrolyzed formula components such as whey protein can minimize allergic skin reactions alone, and this may have masked the effects of prebiotic supplementation [103]. Even naturally occurring human milk oligosaccharides found in women expressing the sugar secretory protein FUT2 are associated with fewer cases of allergic disease and eczema in their breast-fed children [104]. This is partially due to fructan’s inhibitory effect on IgE expression, such as what was observed in a synbiotic trial by Kukkonen and group [105]. Others postulate that galectin-9 may be upregulated by milk oligosaccharides to induce T cell differentiation selectively into Th1- and regulatory T cells, which mitigate excessive inflammation [106]. Support for this hypothesis also comes from the fact that depletion of C.Also containing H1 N1 – and B-like virus. A similarly selective response was seen in a cohort of elderly persons consuming a dietary supplement containing oligofructose/inulin and triacylglycerol, with antibodies mounted for H1 N1 – over H3 N2 – and B-like viruses [93]. It is currently unknown what properties of the prebiotics impart this selectivity, though if this were determined, prebiotic formulations could be manipulated to stimulate unique immune responses against immunized viruses. Prebiotics may also have general immune benefits when used alongside immunization. A unique oligosaccharide mixture (9:1 short-chain GOS to long-chain FOS + pAOS) fed to mice prior to vaccination improved their type IV hypersensitivity response, a form of cell-mediated immunity [94]. In turn, this immune response evoked enhanced skin induration and CD4+ T cell counts against toxins other than the vaccinated pathogen [95]. If this is observable in humans, an improvement in circulating antibodies and cell-mediated immunity by a food product would be beneficial especially to individuals at high risk for infection such as children and the elderly. Prebiotics and probiotics have been extremely successful at suppressing indigestion and diarrhea due to pathogens. These conditions in infants are common and can be quite serious, particularly in the developing world [96]. For this reason, researchers have measured the effects of oligofructose on diarrhea-associated fever and required medical attention in infants [97,98]. They found that children with a similar occurrence of diarrhea experienced fewer episodes of fever, trips to the doctor, and antibiotic use while consuming 1 g/day oligofructose-supplemented cereal. Even though their ability to combat loose stool was unchanged, oligofructose may improve young children’s ability to fight off underlying infection to reduce associated morbidities. On the other end of the immune spectrum, excessive response to a foreign stimulus can lead to allergic diseases such as asthma, atopic dermatitis, and eczema. A meta-analysis of human clinical trials for allergic diseases in children concluded that prebiotics are protective against the onset of eczema, with a potential trend for combatting allergic diseases [99]. For example, infants fed formula supplemented with a GOS/FOS/pAOS mixture for 6?0 months had a 44 lower prevalence of atopic dermatitis and a low risk for developing the condition [100], as did another formula containing a GOS/FOS mixture [101]. Contrary to this, a more recent study used partially hydrolyzed formula supplemented with the same GOS/FOS prebiotic and found no effect on eczema prevalence [102]. However, partially hydrolyzed formula components such as whey protein can minimize allergic skin reactions alone, and this may have masked the effects of prebiotic supplementation [103]. Even naturally occurring human milk oligosaccharides found in women expressing the sugar secretory protein FUT2 are associated with fewer cases of allergic disease and eczema in their breast-fed children [104]. This is partially due to fructan’s inhibitory effect on IgE expression, such as what was observed in a synbiotic trial by Kukkonen and group [105]. Others postulate that galectin-9 may be upregulated by milk oligosaccharides to induce T cell differentiation selectively into Th1- and regulatory T cells, which mitigate excessive inflammation [106]. Support for this hypothesis also comes from the fact that depletion of C.
