ility is critical for cellular anabolism and importantly for neurons, 
maintaining a resting plasma membrane potential for cell excitability. A reduced proton gradient would explain decreased ATP levels in PINK1 fly knockout models and it would be interesting to investigate whether this is due to a reduced ym in vivo. PINK1, ROS generation and glutathione levels One important sequelae of mitochondrial dysfunction is increased generation of reactive oxygen species, which in turn can cause oxidative stress and damage to macromolecules within cells. This damage extends to the mitochondrial respiratory components themselves, compromising function further. Evidence of oxidative stress and damage to proteins, lipids and nucleic acids has been found in the substantia nigra of sporadic PD patients and more recently, in fibroblasts from patients carrying PINK1 mutations. We show here that in the absence of PINK1, ROS generation in both Chlorphenoxamine site mitochondria and cytoplasm is increased, even in young human neurons. PINK1 knockout flies demonstrate increased sensitivity to oxidative stress and increased ROS generation and oxidative stress is similarly found in animal models of parkin and DJ-1 loss-of-function. Hence ROS generation and elevated oxidative stress appears to be a unifying cellular phenotype in recessive Parkinsonism. This is the first demonstration that increased ROS production occurs early in a mammalian model of PD prior to neuronal stress and apoptosis, and hence suggests that it 19770292 has an important role in the pathogenesis of neuronal dysfunction and death. PINK1 may exert its protective effect on ym and the prevention of ROS generation via phosphorylation of Tumor-necrosis factor associated protein-1. TRAP1 is an ATP-binding molecular chaperone co-localises with PINK1 in mitochondria, and is phosphorylated by PINK1 in vitro. Silencing of TRAP1 in tumor cells also causes mitochondrial swelling, loss of ym, rapid increase in intracellular ROS generation and release 17786207 of cytochrome C, identical to the effects of PINK1 knockdown. Rescue experiments placed TRAP1 downstream of PINK1, with phosphorylation of TRAP1 required for its protective activity, which indirectly prevents the release of cytochrome C and ROS generation in response to apoptogenic agents such as hydrogen peroxide. The role of a putative PINK1-TRAP1 interaction in dopaminergic neurons has yet to be investigated, but could provide a key to selective degeneration of these cells if heavily utilised as a protective pathway during stress. The primary mechanism for detoxification of ROS in the cytoplasm is the oxidation of reduced glutathione, which is regenerated harmlessly to the reduced species by the flavoenzyme glutathione reductase. We show that there is a significant decrease in steady state levels of total glutathione in primary human neurons lacking PINK1, which is likely to greatly impair their antioxidant defences. Evidence for decreased total GSH levels in the brains of patients with idiopathic PD has been widely reported and may occur as a result of decreased GSH synthesis, which is ATP dependent and thus compromised as a result of failing membrane potential. Chronic inhibition of glutathione synthesis in dopaminergic neurons in vitro using buthionone-Ssulfoximime reduced long term neuronal viability. Numerous studies in rodents have demonstrated that glutathione deficiency by BSO administration results in mitochondrial swelling with vacuolization and rupture of the cristae and
